Libro Wikipedia, la enciclopedia libre.Un libro del latnliber, libri es una obra impresa, manuscrita o pintada en una serie de hojas de papel, pergamino, vitela u otro material, unidas por un lado es decir, encuadernadas y protegidas con tapas, tambin llamadas cubiertas.Un libro puede tratar sobre cualquier tema.Segn la definicin de la Unesco,1 un libro debe poseer 2.Tambin se llama libro a una obra de gran extensin publicada en varias unidades independientes, llamados tomos o volmenes.Otras veces se llama tambin libro a cada una de las partes de una obra, aunque fsicamente se publiquen todas en un mismo volumen ejemplo Libros de la Biblia.Hoy en da, no obstante, esta definicin no queda circunscrita al mundo impreso o de los soportes fsicos, dada la aparicin y auge de los nuevos formatos documentales y especialmente de la World Wide Web.El libro digital o libro electrnico, conocido como e book, est viendo incrementado su uso en el mundo del libro y en la prctica profesional bibliotecaria y documental.Adems, el libro tambin puede encontrarse en formato audio, en cuyo caso se denomina audiolibro.Desde los orgenes, la humanidad ha tenido que hacer frente a una cuestin fundamental la forma de preservar y transmitir su cultura, es decir, sus creencias y conocimientos, tanto en el espacio como en el tiempo.El logotipo. Tiene naturaleza lingstica, debido al empleo de un determinado lenguaje para la comprensin de los receptores.Y grafica debido al procedimiento de.Este trabajo desarrolla un modelo de equilibrio de un mercado con diferenciacin horizontal de productos en el cual las empresas fijan los precios de las variedades.El planteamiento de esta cuestin supone por un lado, determinar la forma de garantizar la integridad intelectual del contenido de la obra y la conservacin del soporte en el que fue plasmada, y por otro, encontrar el medio por el cual se mantendr inalterada la intencin o finalidad para la cual se concibi.Los orgenes de la historia del libro se remontan a las primeras manifestaciones pictricas de nuestros antepasados, la pintura rupestre del hombre del paleoltico.Con un simbolismo, posiblemente cargado de significados mgicos, estas pinturas muestran animales, caceras y otras escenas cotidianas del entorno natural del hombre antiguo, que trataba de dominar las fuerzas adversas de la naturaleza capturando su esencia mediante su representacin.Son el ms antiguo precedente de los primeros documentos impresos de que se tiene memoria.Comunicacin oral y formas rudimentariaseditarLas seales gestuales fueron la primera forma de expresar y transmitir mensajes.Cual Es El Mejor Software Contable Peru' title='Cual Es El Mejor Software Contable Peru' />La palabra hablada es la manera ms antigua de contar historias.Mediante frmulas de valor mnemotcnico2 se estructuraban narraciones, que pasaban de generacin en generacin como valiosa herencia cultural de los ms diversos grupos humanos.Dichas reglas mnemotcnicas ayudaban tanto a la memorizacin como a la difusin de los relatos.Es el caso de los poemas homricos, que han merecido valiosos estudios sobre el particular.Posiblemente, gran parte de las tradiciones y leyendas han tenido semejante inicio.Esta transmisin oral tena el inconveniente de los ruidos que deformaban el mensaje.La mayora de las veces era el narrador rapsoda, aeda, juglar quien en funcin de sus intereses la deformaba de una u otra forma.La escrituraeditarCuando los sistemas de escritura fueron inventados en las antiguas civilizaciones, el hombre utiliz diversos soportes de escritura tablillas de arcilla, ostracon, placas de hueso o marfil, tablas de madera, papiros, tablillas enceradas, planchas de plomo, pieles curtidas, etc.La escritura fue el resultado de un proceso lento de evolucin con diversos pasos imgenes que reproducan objetos cotidianos pictografa representacin mediante smbolos ideografa y la reproduccin de slabas y letras.Los ms antiguos vestigios de escritura se encuentran, hacia finales del IV milenio a.C., en el Antiguo Egipto, con jeroglficos, y la antigua Mesopotamia, mediante signos cuneiformes escritura cuneiforme utilizaban una varilla con seccin triangular, que al hendir en placas de arcilla, dejaba una marca en forma de cua.La usaron los sumerios, acadios, asirios, hititas, persas, babilonios etc.La escritura egipcia, que perdur ms de tres milenios, mediante jeroglficos, representaba ideas abstractas, objetos, palabras, slabas, letras y nmeros.Evolucion en las escrituras hiertica y demtica.Otros pueblos, como los hititas y los aztecas tambin tuvieron tipos propios de escritura.La escritura china ms antigua que se conoce son 5.C. en el yacimiento de Xiaotun, en la provincia de Henan.Pero los primeros libros reconocibles de China corresponden al siglo VI a.C., los jiance o jiandu, rollos de finas tiras de bamb o madera grabados con tinta indeleble y atados con cordel.Estos textos servan principalmente a causas institucionales, era la obra de funcionarios civiles o militares.Desde Confucio en adelante 5.C. los libros se convirtieron en importantes instrumentos de aprendizaje, se escribieron tratados de filosofa, medicina, astronoma y cartografa.En el perodo de los reinos combatientes 4.C. La seda se us mucho como soporte para escribir.La tela era ligera, resistente al clima hmedo, absorba bien la tinta y proporcionaba al texto un fondo blanco, sin embargo era mucho ms cara que el bamb, es por esto que en ocasiones se haca una copia en bamb antes de grabarse en seda los textos importantes.La invencin del papel segn la tradicin china, se atribuye a un eunuco de la corte imperial llamado Cai Lin en el 1.C. Usando nuevos ingredientes trapos viejos, camo, corteza de rbol y redes de pescar cre un mtodo de fabricacin de papel muy similar al que se usa hoy en da.Pero el papel tard cientos de aos en reemplazar al bamb y la seda, fue hasta finales del siglo II d.C. que la corte imperial lo us en cantidades importantes.Esta innovacin no se propag fuera de China hasta el 6.C. aproximadamente, y alcanz Europa a travs de Espaa hasta el siglo XII.A mediados del siglo VIII los chinos inventaron la impresin xilogrfica, o el grabado en madera, y la necesidad de reproducir un gran nmero de textos e imgenes budistas, calendarios, manuales de adivinacin y diccionarios promovi una rpida y temprana propagacin de la xilografa.El primer libro impreso chino que se ha encontrado es el Sutra del diamante del 8.C. Los impresores chinos crearon los tipos mviles hacia el siglo XI, el escritor chino Chen Kua 1.Mengshi Pitan, segn el escritor el herrero Jen.Tsung de la dinasta de los Song del norte entre 1.Tambin se le atribuye la creacin de una mesa giratoria para guardar los caracteres, esta tcnica se llamaba tipografa tablearia.Hacia el 1. 30. 0 Wang Tcheng, un tcnico agrnomo, emplaz la arcilla por madera de azufaifo, que era mucho ms dura. Colors In Motion Windows Media Player Visualization Wiki . Pero este avance no revolucion la imprenta hasta el punto que lo hizo Gutenberg en Europa 4.A diferencia de las lenguas europeas, el chino escrito requiere miles de caracteres nicos, lo que hace mucho ms eficaz los bloques de madera individuales que los enormes conjuntos de tipos reutilizables.En contraste con el declive de las artes de los escribas en occidente en los siglos que siguieron a la creacin de la imprenta de tipos mviles, la caligrafa china conserv su prestigio, era un arte.No obstante, a finales del siglo XV, China haba producido ms libros que el resto del mundo junto.Los rabes aprendieron la tcnica para fabricar papel de sus contactos con China en el siglo VIII, y este se introdujo en Europa en el siglo XII a travs de la Espaa musulmana.La obra xilogrfica ms antigua encontrada hasta nuestros das es el Dharani Sutra de Corea, datado en el 7.C., aunque no se sabe quin fue el inventor de la xilografa los chinos y coreanos fueron los que impulsaron la impresin xilogrfica, principalmente para editar textos religiosos.El budismo chino y coreano fue el vehculo que trasmiti la xilografa a Japn.Pero Corea realiz muchos otros avances que revolucionaron la manera de imprimir y en consecuencia el libro.Entre 1. 23. 4 y 1.Gwanghwa, debido a la invasin mongol, no disponan de madera dura fue entonces que imprimieron 2.Go geum sang jeong ye mun con caracteres mviles metlicos.La obra del ao 1.Ms tarde el rey Taejong puso en funcionamiento un taller que contribua a la difusin de la escritura y en 1.Jujaso, donde se fabricaban caracteres mviles de imprenta, realiz la primera fundicin de tipos mviles en bronce.
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Supported Linux operating systems are Ubuntu, Mint, Debian, Fedora, Open. SUSE, Puppy and many other Linux distributions. Not just the Linux, but it also supports creation of bootable USB disk containing non- Linux based software (e. Microsoft Windows Installer USB disk). Detailed software support is given below: Linux Distro. Ubuntu Desktop. Xubuntu Desktop. Kubuntu Desktop. Lubuntu Desktop. Edubuntu Desktop. Ubuntu Studio. Ubuntu Server Installer. Ubuntu Alternate. Mythbuntu Desktop. Blackbuntu. Linux Mint. Debian Netinst. Debian Live. Kali Linux. Backtrack. ![]() Hi, I would like to re-install GRUB (legacy, which means “not GRUB2”) not on MBR but on root directory (/) of /dev/sda3. Migration from UBUNTU 10.04 LTS to 14.04.Fedora Desktop. Open. SUSE 3. 2bit. Open. SUSE 6. 4bit. Fatdog. Lighthouse Puppy. Lucid Puppy. Precise Puppy. Puppy Arcade. Puppy 4. Racy Puppy. Slacko Puppy. Android on a Stick: How to install Android-x86 on a USB stick. Install Android 4.4 on a USB stick. Install XP and Win7 ISOs from a bootable USB drive. ![]() ![]() Wary Puppy. Dou. Dou. Linux. Qimo 4 Kids 2. Sugar on a Stick. AOMEI (Disk Cloning and Backup Tool)Acronis Rescue CDAndroid. Anti. XArch. Bang. Arch. Linux. Artist. XAurora. Back. Box. Baltix Linux. BCCDBleh. OSBodhi. Boot Repair Disk. Carmedia. Cent. OSChakra. Clonezilla. Crunchbang.DBAN 2. 2. XDeft Linux. Secrets Of Power Alexander The Great Sequel here. Deepin Linux. DRBLDSL 4.Dreamlinux. Dynebolic. EASUS Disk Copy. Easy. Peasy. Elementary OSElementary Unleashed. Feather Linux. Finnix. Fuduntu. Fusion Linux. Gamedrift. Gentoo. GEEXBOXg. New. Sense. GRMLg. OS gadgets. GParted. Jolicloud. Kiwi. KNOPPIXKororaa. KXStudio. Leeenux. Liberte. Lin. HESLinux XP Like. LPSMacbuntu. Mandriva One 2. Matriux. MCNLive Toronto. Meego. Micro. Core. Netrunner. Ophcrack. OSGeo Live. Pardus. Parted. Magic. PCLinux. OSPear OSPeppermint. PINGPinguy OSPlasma active. PLo. P Linux. Porteus. Redo Backup. Rescatux. RIP Linux. Runt Linux. Sabayon Linux. Saline. OSSatux. Simply MEPISSLAXSli. Ta. ZSn. 0w. L1nu. XSolus. OSSystem Rescue CDTails. Terralinux. Tiny. Core. Trisquel. Uberstudent. Ultimate Boot CDUltimate Edition. Wifi. Way. Wifi. Slaxx. PUDXBMCXBMCbuntu. Start. OSwatt. OS R5. Zenwalk Live. Zorin OSLive Antivirus Rescue CDs. AOSS (Malware Scanner)AVG Rescue CDAvira Antivir Rescue Disk. Bitdefender Rescue CDComodo Rescue Disk. Dr. Web Live. CDF- Secure Rescue CDG DATA Antivirus. Kaspersky Rescue Disk. Panda Safe CDTrinity Rescue Kit. Non Linux Based Software. Falcon 4 Boot CDHiren’s Boot CDKon- Boot. Windows Vista Installer. Windows 7 Installer. Windows 8 Installer. Create Bootable USB Disk Containing Linux Installer from ISOWe take example of Ubuntu that is widely being used. When you download Ubuntu, it will be downloaded in ISO format. Universal USB Installer can create a bootable USB drive containing Ubuntu installer, on Microsoft Windows. You can use that bootable USB to install Ubuntu on your PC. How Universal USB Installer Works. Download your favorite Linux operating system (In our case it is Ubuntu – ISO file). Download Universal USB Installer and run it (its portable and can run without being installed on PC) on PC. In case of Ubuntu, select Ubuntu in step 1, where it says ‘Select Linux Distribution’. In step 2, browse and open the Linux ISO file that you downloaded. Select your USB drive carefully. Go to computer to see the USB drive letter so that you may be able to correctly select the USB drive from Universal USB Installer. Click ‘Create’ button and let this software finish its task. After that you will have a Linux operating system ready to be installed or used from USB drive. You can also choose to format USB drive before creating bootable disk. Your USB drive must be Fat. Fat. 32 or NTFS formatted, otherwise your drive will not Boot. For Ubuntu Linux, you need a USB of at least 2. GB capacity. When you are done, your USB will show like this: Installing OS from Bootable USBChange the PC setting from BIOS and configure it to run from USB drive. Restart the PC and it will pick the installer or package from the USB drive to install or run Linux on your PC. Caution: If you are not familiar with the Linux file systems and you have not installed Linux before then you probably should get an expert’s help in installing Linux. In worst case, you might end up losing all your previous partitions during Linux install. In case of Ubuntu, read installation instructions carefully. It is not like FAT3. NTFS. You won’t just be selecting a single NTFS partition to install Linux on. You will have to determine root, bootloader and swap portions. DO NOT CHOOSE ‘REPLACE WINDOWS WITH UBUNTU’ BECAUSE IT WILL ERASE ALL PREVIOUS PARTITIONS. Always choose ‘something else’ and choose partition to install Linux on. DO NOT CHOOSE WHOLE HARD DISK FROM ‘DEVICE FOR BOOTLOADER INSTALLATION’. If your hard disk is empty and this is a fresh Linux install then do whatever you like. But if hard disk has already got partitions and data, be very careful. The BIOS/MBR Boot Process. Regardless of the computer or operating system, standard (“IBM- compatible”) desktop PCs and laptops all power on and start up using one of two ways: the traditional BIOS- MBR method and the newer UEFI- GPT method, used by the latest versions of Windows, Linux, and Mac OS X on newer PCs, laptops, and tablets. This article summarizes the process by which traditional BIOS PCs load an operating system, covering the basics and details of the BIOS, MBR, and bootsector. This article has been unofficially dubbed Everything you ever wanted to know about how your PC boots, part one. Overview of the BIOS/MBR Boot Process. In the diagram below, the boot sequence for all standard computers and operating systems is shown: As you can see, the boot process is broken down into several major components, each of which is a completely- separate subsystem with many different options and variations. The implementations of each component can differ greatly depending on your hardware and operating system, but the rules they follow and the process by which they work are always the same. Components of the Boot Process The BIOSThe BIOS is where hardware meets software for the first time, and where all the boot magic begins. The BIOS code is baked into the motherboard of your PC, usually stored on what is called an EEPROM 1 and is considerably hardware- specific. The BIOS is the lowest level of software that interfaces with the hardware as a whole,2 and is the interface by means of which the bootloader and operating system kernel can communicate with and control the hardware. Through standardized calls to the BIOS (“interrupts” in computer parlance), the operating system can trigger the BIOS to read and write to the disk and interface with other hardware components. When your PC is first powered up, a lot happens. Electrical components of the PC are initially responsible for bringing your computer to life, as debouncing circuits take your push of the power button and trigger a switch that activates the power supply and directs current from the PSU to the motherboard and, mainly through it, to all the various components of your PC. As each individual component receives life- giving electricity, it is powered up and brought online to its initial state. The startup routines and overall functionality of the simpler components like the RAM and PSU is hardwired into them as a series of logic circuits (AND/NAND and OR/NOR gates), while more complicated parts such as the video card have their own microcontrollers that act as mini- CPUs, controlling the hardware and interfacing with the rest of your PC to delegate and oversee the work. The POST Process. Once your PC has been powered on, the BIOS begins its work as part of the POST (Power- On Self Test) process. It bridges all the various parts of your PC together, and interfaces between them as required, setting up your video display to accept basic VGA and show it on the screen, initializing the memory banks and giving your CPU access to all the hardware. It scans the IO buses for attached hardware, and identifies and maps access to the hard disks you have connected to your PC. The BIOS on newer motherboards is smart enough to even recognize and identify USB devices, such as external drives and USB mice, letting you boot from USB sticks and use your mouse in legacy software. During the POST procedure, quick tests are conducted where possible, and errors caused by incompatible hardware, disconnected devices, or failing components are often caught. It’s the BIOS that’s responsible for a variety of error messages such as “keyboard error or no keyboard present” or warnings about mismatched/unrecognized memory. At this point, the majority of the BIOS’ work has completed and it’s almost ready to move on to the next stage of the boot process. The only thing left is to run what are called “Add- On ROMs”: some hardware attached to the motherboard might require user intervention to complete its initialization and the BIOS actually hands off control of the entire PC to software routines coded into hardware like the video card or RAID controllers. They assume control of the computer and its display, and let you do things like set up RAID arrays or configure display settings before the PC has even truly finished powering up. When they’re done executing, they pass control of the computer back to the BIOS and and the PC enters a basic, usable state and is ready to begin. BIOS Boot Handoff. After having configured the basic input and output devices of your PC, the BIOS now enters the final stages where it’s still in control of your computer. At this point, you’ll normally be presented with an option to quickly hit a key to enter the BIOS setup from where you can configure hardware settings and control how your PC boots. If you choose nothing, the BIOS will begin the first step in actually “booting” your PC using the default settings. Earlier we mentioned that an important part of the BIOS’ work is to detect and map connected hard disks. This list now comes in handy, as the BIOS will load a very small program from the first hard disk to the memory and tell the CPU to execute its contents, handing off control of the computer to whatever is on the hard drive and ending its active role in loading your PC. This hard drive is known as “the boot device,” “startup disk,” or “drive 0” and can usually be picked or set in the BIOS setup. The Boot Device. Regardless of whether the BIOS was configured to boot from a local hard disk or from a removable USB stick, the handoff sequence is the same. Once the BIOS POST and Add. On ROM procedures have completed, the BIOS loads the first 5. MBR, or the Master Boot Record. The Master Boot Record (MBR)The MBR is the first and most important component on the software side of things in the boot procedure on BIOS- based machines. Every hard disk has an MBR, and it contains several important pieces of information. The Partition Table. First and foremost, the MBR contains something called the partition table, which is an index of up to four partitions that exist on the same disk, a table of contents, if you will. Without it (such as on floppy disks), the entire disk could only contain one partition, which means that you can’t have things like different filesystems on the same drive, which in turn would mean you could never install Linux and Windows on the same disk, for example. Bootstrap Code. Secondly, the MBR also contains a very important bit of code known as the “bootstrap code.” The first 4. BIOS will load it and execute its contents as- is, kicking off the bootloader procedure. How small? Well, to put things in context, 4. Mi. B floppy disk – barely enough to fit any form of useful code – and way, way too small to do something as complicated as call up the operating system kernel from the disk. Given how tiny the bootstrap code section of the MBR is, the only useful purpose it can really serve is to look up another file from the disk and load it to perform the actual boot process. As such, this bootstrap code is often termed a “stage one bootloader.” Depending on the operating system, the exact place the bootstrap code searches for the “stage 2 bootloader” can change, but on Windows the stage 1 bootloader will search the partition table of the MBR for a partition marked as “active” which is MBR- speak for “bootable,” indicating that the start of the partition contains the next portion of the boot code in its starting sectors (also known as its “bootsector”). On a correctly- created MBR disk, only one partition can be marked as active at a time. So the job of the bootstrap code segment in the MBR is pretty simple: look up the active partition from the partition table, and load that code into the memory for execution by the CPU as the next link in the boot chain. Depending on the OS you’re loading, it might actually look up a hard- coded partition instead of the active partition (e. Ki. B of the partition, it might be the second Ki. B or 6 Ki. B starting from the 2nd multiple of the current phase of the moon) – but the basic concept remains the same. However, for legacy compatibility reasons, the MBR almost always loads the first sector of the active partition, meaning another only- 5. Boot Signature. On IBM- compatible PCs (basically, everything) the final two bytes of the 5. MBR are called the boot signature and are used by the BIOS to determine if the selected boot drive is actually bootable or not. ![]() America’s First Free- Roaming Genetically Engineered Insects Are Coming to New York. Diamondback moths may be a mere half- inch in length, but their voracious appetite for Brussels sprouts, kale and cauliflower make them a major pain for farmers. This week, the U. S. Department of Agriculture approved a potential solution: moths genetically engineered to contain a special gene that makes them gradually die off. A field trial slated to take place in a small area of upstate New York will become the first wild release of an insect modified using genetic engineering in the US. The moths have been engineered by the British biotech firm Oxitec, the same company that last year caused a stir with its plans to release genetically modified, Zika- fighting mosquitoes in the Florida Keys.The diamond back moths take a similar approach to the mosquitoes, modifying male mosquitoes to limit the population over time by passing on a gene to offspring when it mates with wild females that causes female moths to die before they reach maturity. Coming Down From A Crack High here. The technique is a riff on an approach used to manage agricultural pests since the 1. ![]() ![]() Using radiation, scientists made insects like the screwworm unable to produce viable offspring. By 1. 98. 2, screwworm was eradicated from the US using this alternative to pesticides. In “Silent Spring” Rachel Carson suggested this approach was the solution to the dangers of harmful pesticides agricultural producers required to protect their crops. The problem was that it did not work on every insect—in many cases, it simply left irradiated insects too weak to compete for mates with their healthier kin. Diamondback moths are a sizable problem for farmers, and a problem that’s growing as the moths develop resistance to traditional pesticides. They do about $5 billion in damage to cruciferous crops worldwide every year. In the upcoming trial, a team at Cornell University will oversee the release of the genetically engineered moths in a 1. Cornell in Geneva, New York. After a review found that the field trial is unlikely to impact either the environment or humans, the USDA issued a permit that allows for the release of up to 3. It is caterpillars that damage crops, so the plan to release adult males that produce unviable offspring should not cause any additional crop damage. And any surviving moths will likely be killed off by pesticides or upstate New York’s frigid winter, according to the report submitted to the USDA. The plan to release modified mosquitoes in the Keys attracted much local ire—after initially getting the greenlight from the FDA, the project was ultimately stalled by a local vote and forced to find a new location for a trial. In upstate New York, too, the moths have stirred up a debate over GMOs for the past several years, though the plan has not been met with quite the same level of opposition. The approval process through the USDA rather than the FDA, too, was much swifter. In laboratory and greenhouse trials, the modified mosquito was reportedly effective in decreasing the overall population. But tests still need to determine how it will fare in open air. Oxitec has released its engineered mosquitoes Brazil, Grand Cayman, and Panama, and still plans to go ahead with a field trial in the Keys. In December, the company announced plans for field trials of a genetically modified Mediterranean fruit fly in Western Australia.
At least seven crew members and three passengers were hospitalized when an American Airlines flight from Athens, Greece to Philadelphia hit extreme turbulence on. Diamondback moths may be a mere half-inch in length, but their voracious appetite for Brussels sprouts, kale and cauliflower make them a major pain for farmers. This. It is also working on genetically engineering several other agricultural pests, including Drosophila suzukii and the Olive fly.[MIT Technology Review]. |
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